Westward

Samuel Kiechel spent 15 July in Bremen and left the following day in the company of a West Frisian nobleman and his servant. Kiechel learnt that the nobleman had to leave his hometown due to war — presumably the Eighty Years’ War (or Dutch War of Independence). The three men hired a carter to drive them west to Delmenhorst, five miles from Bremen.

In Delmenhorst, Kiechel saw a splendid fortress and discovered it belonged to Count Johann of Oldenburg (Johann VII of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst). The travellers did not linger but proceeded on their journey, arriving in Oldenburg in the afternoon. Their route took them through forests and across open heathland.

Eventually, they hired another carter to drive them to Aurich, three miles from Fronberg. According to Kiechel, Aurich was poorly built but had a strong castle. The town served as the seat of the Counts of Frisia.

On his journey from Bremen to Emden, Samuel Kiechel travelled along the North Sea coast in what is now the German state of Lower Saxony. Lower Saxony is a modern name. In the sixteenth century, the region consisted of two counties: Oldenburg and East Frisia. The landscape Kiechel observed on his journey was a distinctive mixture of marshland, moors, and sandy heathland due to its proximity to the sea.

The region lay on the fringes of the Holy Roman Empire. Unlike the feudal societies that dominated much of medieval Europe, the Frisian tribes managed to retain their autonomy and freedom until the fifteenth century. The so-called ‘Frisian freedom’ ended when the elected military leaders and chieftains began to establish themselves as the ruling elite, carving out domains for themselves. They redefined ‘freedom‘ not as personal liberty but as freedom from foreign rulers. The lack of unity meant the disparate Frisian communities could no longer withstand external attacks. Some parts of the region were subdued, while others were incorporated into the Empire under the chieftains. The House of Cirksena descended from a line of chieftains and became the rulers of the County of East Frisia. When Kiechel visited the County, it was governed by Edzard II (1532-1599), who resided in Aurich.

The Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648)

Travelling west from Bremen along the North Sea coast, Samuel Kiechel approached the border between the Holy Roman Empire and the Netherlands. Since 1568, the Low Countries had been embroiled in a conflict between its independent northern provinces and the southern provinces remaining under Spanish rule.

The Low Countries became part of the Habsburg Empire when Maximilian I (1459–1519) inherited the Burgundian Netherlands following the death of his wife, Mary of Burgundy, in 1482. Maximilian and his successors steadily expanded their holdings, and his grandson, Charles V (1500–1558), ruled over a domain that encompassed the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and the Spanish colonies in America.

Charles V was born in Ghent, Flanders. Growing up in the region gave him a personal connection and interest in the Netherlands. But this changed after his abdication in 1556. The Habsburg Empire was divided between Charles’ son Philip II of Spain (1527–1598) and his brother Ferdinand (1503-1564).

Philip inherited Spain, southern Italy, the American colonies, and the Netherlands. Born and raised in Spain, Philip’s upbringing at the Spanish court greatly influenced his personality and political approach. After ascending to the throne, the Burgundian, Flemish and Dutch provinces became marginalised. The local nobility, which had previously held influence and power in provincial administration under Charles, was sidelined. Philip appointed his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, as regent, and an increasing number of Spanish noblemen assumed governance of the provinces.

Additionally, the Protestant Reformation took hold in the Netherlands during the mid-sixteenth century, with Calvinism becoming particularly popular. The staunchly Catholic Philip sought to suppress this movement, leading to widespread religious persecution.

This cooperation was short-lived. Radical Calvinists antagonised some southern provinces while Spanish forces regained control of others. In 1579, the Calvinist northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht and declared independence from Spanish rule in 1581.

The conflict, especially the Spanish repression of Dutch Calvinists, had a direct effect on neighbouring countries, notably the Holy Roman Empire. Many Dutch fled and settled in German cities near the border. Kiechel observed encountering numerous Dutch people in Hamburg and Bremen. Since these refugees often included merchants and artisans, their skills greatly contributed to the prosperity of the cities where they settled.

In the 1580s, during Samuel Kiechel’s visit, Spain was expanding its control by reconquering southern provinces. In 1584, William the Silent (1533-1584), the leader of the Dutch Revolt, was assassinated, and a year later, Antwerp fell after a Spanish siege. Kiechel learned about the blockade while travelling to England and visited Antwerp on his return journey.

In 1585, the English decided to support the Dutch provinces by sending troops and financial aid to the rebels. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 marked the end of Spanish successes. That same year, the Dutch rebels established the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. Under Maurice of Orange (1567-1625), William the Silent’s son, the provinces united and started retaking several fortified cities from the Spanish.