The Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648)

Frisia, the region along the German North Sea Coast, was flat, open and sparsely populated. Between major trade ports like Hamburg, Bremen and Emden, there were mainly smaller towns and villages. Samuel Kiechel travelled west through Frisia. His destination was the Netherlands, that is, the independent Dutch provinces. The further west he went, the more he began to notice the signs of the war that devastated the Low Countries, spilling across the borders to Germany in the form of migrants, refugees and banditry.

The Low Countries became part of the Habsburg Empire when Maximilian I (1459–1519) inherited the Burgundian Netherlands upon the death of his wife, Mary of Burgundy, in 1482. Maximilian and his successors steadily expanded their holdings, and his grandson, Charles V (1500–1558), ruled over a domain that encompassed the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and the Spanish colonies in America.

Charles was born in Ghent, Flanders. Growing up in the region gave him a personal connection and interest in the Netherlands. But this changed after his abdication in 1556. The Habsburg Empire was divided between Charles’ son Philip II of Spain (1527–1598) and his brother Ferdinand (1503-1564).

Ferdinand received the Holy Roman Empire and the title of Emperor. Philip inherited Spain, southern Italy, the American colonies and the Netherlands. Born and raised in Spain, Philip’s upbringing at the Spanish court greatly influenced his personality and political approach. After ascending to the throne, the Burgundian, Flemish and Dutch provinces became marginalised. The local nobility, which had previously held influence and power in provincial administration under Charles, was sidelined. Philip appointed his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, as regent, and an increasing number of Spanish noblemen assumed governance of the provinces.

Additionally, the Protestant Reformation took hold in the Netherlands during the mid-sixteenth century, with Calvinism becoming particularly popular. The staunchly Catholic Philip sought to suppress this movement, leading to widespread religious persecution.

However, this cooperation was short-lived. Radical Calvinists antagonised some southern provinces, prompting them to return to Spanish rule. Other provinces were retaken by Spanish forces. In 1579, the seven remaining Calvinist northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht. They declared independence from Spanish rule in 1581 and formed the Dutch Republic (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden).

The conflict, particularly the Spanish repression of Dutch Calvinists, directly influenced neighbouring countries, especially the Holy Roman Empire. Many Dutch fled and settled in German cities near the border. Samuel Kiechel mentioned the numerous Dutch inhabitants in Hamburg and Bremen. Because these refugees often included merchants and artisans, their skills significantly contributed to the prosperity of the cities they settled in.

However, the voyage of the Armada was a disaster. Fast, more manoeuvrable English ships, storms and the shallow waters along the Dutch coast destroyed many ships. The defeat marked the end of Spanish successes. Under Maurice of Orange (1567-1625), William the Silent’s son, the rebellious provinces started retaking several fortified cities from the Spanish.

In Emden

Kiechel and his companions tried to find another carter to take them the remaining two miles from Aurich to Emden. Their search was difficult because the townspeople were reluctant to assist. Kiechel learnt that they were concerned about their horses. Bandits and privateers menaced the area. Eventually, the travellers found someone willing to take them to Emden, where they arrived in the evening.

The gates of Emden were heavily guarded, and the travellers had to wait half an hour before they were allowed in. The guards recorded their names and where they arrived from. The innkeeper where Kiechel stayed did the same.

The proximity to the Dutch border was both an advantage and a risk for the city. On one hand, the war could easily spill over the border, as it did in 1568 when a Spanish mercenary army pursued fleeing Dutch troops into East Frisia and, after defeating them, carried out a spree of death and destruction. On the other hand, many Dutch Calvinists, having fled their homeland, settled in Emden and strengthened the city’s prosperity and commercial success. Its strategic position on the Ems and its secure harbour allowed Emden to become an essential trading hub during a time when Dutch ports were under blockade by the Spanish.

Samuel Kiechel described Emden as a small, well-constructed and pleasant city. It was under the authority of the Count of Emden and served as the capital of East Frisia. Emden’s proximity to the sea, with an inlet from the Ems River leading into the city, enabled ships to anchor within the walls.

A bird’s-eye view in the Civitates Orbis Terrarum shows Emden from the south. The city is fortified with walls and surrounded by canals. Two large canals extend deep into Emden, seemingly dividing the city into four sections. These canals also form the city’s harbour. As Kiechel noted, we see many ships moored within Emden’s boundaries.