Reprovisioning

By the time the barge anchored below the chalk cliffs of Møn, Samuel Kiechel had already spent four days at sea and had run out of provisions. He wrote that he had brought only bread worth about two Kreuzer (a small German coin). Other passengers were also running low on provisions, so they asked the vessel’s owner to be brought ashore to buy food. The barge carried a small rowing boat for this purpose.

The owner agreed, and on the afternoon of 23 April, Kiechel and some other passengers were brought ashore. From the shore, they had to climb a steep, sandy hill. Kiechel wrote that he had drunk nothing for three days and, when he reached the top, felt thoroughly exhausted. From the top of the hill, the group walked for half an hour until they reached a small settlement.

The inhabitants of the hamlet were reluctant to sell bread to the passengers, so Kiechel and the others had to persuade them. By contrast, Samuel wrote that they had no difficulty buying eggs, bacon, ham, butter and milk.

The difficulty in buying bread may have been that, compared with other foods on offer, it had to be baked regularly and did not keep very well. The inhabitants of the hamlet presumably made enough bread for their own consumption and no more, to avoid it going mouldy. The other foodstuffs were either preserved or readily available from the farm animals (eggs, milk). According to Kiechel, everyone bought as much food as needed. Our traveller wrote that he particularly enjoyed the fresh milk.

Afterwards, the group walked back to the boat. But when they reached the shore, Kiechel saw, to his horror, that the owner of their ship had set sail. During their absence, the wind had turned westward, making it too dangerous to anchor in this spot, as the ship would be driven into the cliffs. To allow his passengers to catch up, the sailors had set only the smallest sail. The boat they had arrived in was still on the shore, and everyone hurried towards it.

The passengers had to wade through the surf to reach the boat. When Kiechel saw everyone hurrying towards it, he did not want to be the last. He had bought some eggs and used his hat to carry them back. Now, in his hurry and to have his hands free while wading through the waves, Samuel threw his hat with the eggs into the boat. The eggs probably did not survive this treatment. The wind grew stronger, and the passengers had to row for half an hour to reach the ship.

Better to Travel on Foot

On 25 April, the wind had still not changed direction. Kiechel had run out of food again and asked the ship’s owner whether he would sell him some bread. The owner refused, saying he had only three days’ worth of food left for himself and his crew. Kiechel wrote that this supposed crew consisted of a single sailor, just a boy, who knew as much about sailing as our traveller.

Hungry and with no sign of a change in the wind, Samuel Kiechel decided not to wait any longer. He had spent eight days and nights on the ship and made little progress. Kiechel asked to be put ashore, where he would continue his journey on foot. This request was granted, and our traveller was glad to be off the ship. He wrote that the barge’s owner was a godless man who swore a lot. He cursed every ship he saw sailing past out at sea because he was stuck below the cliffs.

When Kiechel left the ship, another passenger, a tailor, decided to join him. The man had come aboard the barge in Copenhagen with a horse. He sold the animal to the horse trader, who was also travelling on the vessel, for three Reichsthaler before leaving the ship. Having this companion was advantageous to Kiechel, as the tailor spoke Danish.

After being brought ashore, the two men took their bags and set out. An hour later, they reached the village of Busene, where they had something to eat. Kiechel paid a peasant from the village a few coins to lead them to the town of Stege, where they arrived in the evening.

Stege was on the coast, and the two travellers spent the night in a fisherman’s house. The owner went fishing that night and returned the next morning with a large catch. Among the fish was a very large herring, which was served to Kiechel and his companion for breakfast. Our traveller noted that he would not disclose the size of the fish, presumably because he feared people would not believe him.

Samuel and his companion left Stege by boat at lunchtime. Also on board were two Scotsmen. Kiechel wrote that Scots travelled as pedlars around Denmark, Pomerania, Prussia and Lithuania. He compared them to the Savoyans in his home country.

The boat sailed along an arm of the sea (Stege Bugt) to the town of Stubbekøbing on the island of Falster. According to Kiechel, the journey was quite unpleasant. The Scotsmen and the boat’s owner were drunk. The boat was as long as two men and heavily laden with textiles belonging to the Scotsmen. As the wind increased, the boat’s owner repeatedly lost hold of the rudder. The boat would then lean so far to one side that water could enter. Kiechel further wrote that the arm of the sea they were sailing on was called Grønsund and was dangerous because no one knew how deep it was.⁴

Nevertheless, the travellers arrived in Stubbekøbing, wet but safe, and spent the night there. They left the following morning (28 April) and reached Nykøbing at lunchtime.

Into Scania

Kiechel and his Danish companion continued the following morning (8 April). They made good progress and covered a lot of ground. Leaving Blekinge, they entered the province of Scania. Kiechel wrote that the landscape of Scania was far less mountainous, more fertile, and had more settlements than the previous two provinces he had travelled through. The clothing of the people of Scania was cleaner, and they managed their everyday life and affairs better.

On the way, Kiechel’s horse had a nasty fall and took the rider with it. But our traveller was lucky and avoided any serious injuries. The two men arrived in the town of Åhus in the evening. According to the journal, the town had no walls; it was well built and located on an arm of the Baltic Sea.

The following day, the two travellers continued on their way. They rode through farmland and arrived at the house of a priest at noon. There, they had lunch, and Kiechel tried his Latin to talk to their host. It took some effort to communicate, and, curious, the priest asked many questions.

Horse Troubles

After concluding the trade, Samuel Kiechel and his companion continued on their way in the afternoon. They had just two more miles to Malmö. However, when they were half an hour from the city’s gates, Kiechel’s new horse broke away and ran off. Our traveller had been leading the animal behind him. He briefly considered chasing it but decided against it. The horse he was riding was tired from the journey.

Although Samuel did not expect to see the horse again, he began searching for it. After a long while, he saw a carriage travelling along the road, with his horse ambling behind it. Kiechel attempted to catch the animal, but it escaped him again.

Eventually, the horse returned of its own accord and began following Kiechel at a distance. With some effort, our traveller finally managed to catch the animal and lead it by hand into Malmö.

Kiechel wrote that Malmö is the capital of the province of Scania. It is not very large, poorly fortified and by the sea. Some time ago, the city had been engaged in the lucrative herring trade. But the good fishing grounds were now in Norway. Herring is still caught in the waters around Malmö, but the catch is significantly lower than before. Kiechel heard that the people of Malmö considered the loss of the herring trade a punishment by god.³

Malmö, 1588

The view of Malmö in volume four of the Civitates shows the city from the east. The image is small and therefore rather lacking in detail. Malmö is fortified by walls and a moat. In the background of the image lies the Øresund. Six large and two small ships are in the Sound, underscoring the city’s character as a trading and fishing port — just as Kiechel mentioned.

Malmö was a major port of the southern Øresund, and boats sailed directly from there to Copenhagen on the other side. Kiechel wrote that the Øresund was four miles wide at this point. But his hope for a quick departure was dashed by adverse winds. He had to wait three days in Malmö before the wind turned.

With nothing else to do, Kiechel decided to try to ride his new horse. His innkeeper lent him a bridle, and our traveller led the animal out of the gate into a field outside Malmö. First, Kiechel tried to saddle the horse, but the animal refused. Only with some help did he eventually manage to place the saddle. But as soon as he was on the horse, it bolted. Kiechel could not stop the animal, and when it ran past a pile of manure, it fell over. Kiechel was thrown off and landed on his neck. He wrote that he was in pain for the next few days but was lucky to have landed in the manure, which softened the fall.⁴

Crossing the Sound

On 13 April, the wind had turned, and several boats were setting out to cross the Øresund to Copenhagen. Kiechel and his companion took their horses on board one of the boats. But our traveller had to return to the customs house to pay the duty on the animals. When he arrived back at the quay, he was shocked to find the boat had already left.

Kiechel had previously mentioned that he did not trust his companion. The man had fled from Livonia owing debts, had no more money, and had already borrowed five Reichsthaler from our traveller. Now the man was on the boat to Copenhagen with both of Kiechel’s horses. Samuel believed he would never see his animals again.

Another boat was leaving for Copenhagen later that day. Samuel waited and, together with about thirty other passengers, sailed across the Øresund. He arrived in Copenhagen three hours after the first boat.

To his surprise, Kiechel’s companion proved more honest than our traveller had assumed. Instead of selling the horses and disappearing with the money, the man had waited, and the horses were properly stabled in the house of a shoemaker. Having reached his destination, the erstwhile companion and our traveller now parted company.

Kalmar and Öland

Map of the area around Kalmar, including the Kalmar Sound and a part of Öland, 1648

Kiechel described Kalmar as a noble town in the province of Småland, small but well fortified, and even more defensible because of its location in a flat, open landscape right beside the sea. The town had a castle with strong walls and many guns.

Our traveller further wrote: Opposite the town is a small stretch of land that is surrounded by the Baltic Sea. It is half a mile wide but eighteen miles long. This island, called Öland, has many villages and parish churches. Many horses are bred on Öland and then sold on the mainland. The horses are small but sturdy and worth their price.

Kalmar is in southeastern Sweden and is one of the country’s oldest and most important places. There, the Kalmar Union, the personal union between the three Scandinavian kingdoms, was agreed upon in 1379.

Olaus Magnus, the author of the Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (1555), wrote that Kalmar was the oldest city in eastern Sweden and was well known as the place where the Swedish nobility held regular diets (deliberative assemblies). During the Swedish rebellion against Denmark, Kalmar and its castle were heavily contested because of their central location, which provided access to and control over major sea lanes in the Baltic.¹

After the Union ended in 1523, the city became Sweden’s southern stronghold near the border. The neighbouring provinces of Blekinge and Scania remained under Danish rule, and tensions between the two countries continued to simmer.

Kalmar, 1693

This 1693 view of Kalmar is quite detailed. It shows the city and the castle, with the Kalmar Sound in the foreground. However, it does not resemble the place Kiechel visited in 1586. There are no images of Kalmar from the late sixteenth century, and, unfortunately, it had changed in the intervening time. The medieval town centre of Kalmar had been built close to the castle. During the Kalmar War (1611-1613) between Denmark-Norway and Sweden, it was largely destroyed. The royal council decided against rebuilding Kalmar at its old location and instead opted to construct the new city centre on the nearby island of Kvarnholmen.

Kalmar was an important trading port. Medieval and early modern sea trade in the Baltic Sea, particularly the lucrative routes from the Hanseatic cities on the German coast to Russia and Livonia, followed the Swedish coast. Olaus Magnus wrote that German, Spanish, French and English merchants regularly visited the city.²

Kalmar, located on the Kalmar Sound, the narrow strait separating the mainland from the island of Öland, provided safe anchorage for merchant vessels. A naval chart in Lucas Jansz. Waghenaer’s Thresoor der Zeevaert (Treasure of Navigation, 1592) depicts the coast around Kalmar in detail, showing water depths, shoals, sandbanks and safe anchorages.

Naval chart of the coast around Kalmar and Öland, 1592

The island of Öland is, as Samuel Kiechel noted, long and very narrow. It stretches like a protective wall along the southeastern coast of Sweden. A map of the island from 1646 shows that Kiechel’s comment about the many villages and parish churches on Öland was justified. In the sixteenth century, large parts of the island were used as royal hunting grounds.

Watching the Royal Family

On 4 April, Samuel Kiechel went to the castle again. Our traveller had a letter of recommendation and was admitted to a hall where he saw the king and his family seated at the table, eating. Although he did not say where he obtained the letter, he had travelled with the Master of the Royal Mint from Söderköping to Kalmar, and it is reasonable to assume that this man was the likely source.

Kiechel described the scene in the hall in his journal: The king sat at the head of the table. On his left sat the queen, and on his right sat his son Sigismund. Beside Sigismund sat first the king’s daughter and then his sister. King John’s sister was the wife of Duke Magnus. Beside her sat a beautiful young boy of about twelve or thirteen years.⁴

The king’s daughter was probably Anna Vasa. Duke Magnus was Magnus of Saxe-Lauenburg, who was married to John’s sister Sophia. At the time of Kiechel’s visit to Sweden, the relationship between Duke Magnus and the Swedish royal family had broken down due to Magnus’ violent temper and mistreatment of his wife. He was exiled from Sweden in 1578. The young boy at the table was Gustav, son of Sophia and Magnus.

Samuel Kiechel continued his description: On the other side of the table, beside the queen, sat two unmarried women who were the queen’s sisters. All three women were very beautiful. Samuel further mentioned that John III had married his wife for her beauty rather than her social rank, which was below what was expected of a queen.⁵

King John’s first wife, Catherine Jagiellon, had died in 1583. Two years later, John married his second wife, Gunilla Bielke. As Kiechel noted, the king’s decision was based on the beauty of his new bride. Bielke was the daughter of a Swedish nobleman and did not come from one of Europe’s royal families. Due to this difference in rank, the marriage was considered a mismatch by many, including John’s family.

As a final note, our traveller commented on the king’s beard. He wrote that it was beautiful, yellowish and long, reaching his chest. Kiechel had not seen such a beard on any other person, and it suited the king very well.⁶

John III, King of Sweden

The whole scene of Samuel Kiechel watching the Swedish royal family eat sounds strange to our modern ears. From the description, it appears as if the family was treated as an attraction to be watched by visitors. However, it’s unlikely that a steady stream of people was led past the table to watch them eat. As Kiechel wrote, he needed a letter of recommendation, which was presumably difficult to obtain. Furthermore, while representation and being seen were part of successful early modern kingship, having a foreigner standing beside the table, watching the monarch eat, was not. Our traveller probably watched the scene from a doorway, gallery or another unobtrusive place in the background.

Rising Waters

On the way to Nyköping, the horse of Kiechel’s companion had begun to limp, and the man considered staying in the town for the animal to recuperate and to exchange his sledge for a saddle. But Samuel wanted to press on to Söderköping that day. One of his former companions, whom he had travelled with from Copenhagen, stayed there, and our traveller wrote that he wanted to spend the night in the house of people he knew. After a short break, Kiechel left his companion in Nyköping and continued alone.

Samuel Kiechel wrote that he neither knew the road nor spoke Swedish, yet he hurried onward. The question of orientation keeps cropping up in the journal. I mentioned earlier that in the sixteenth century, no maps were available for this purpose, and road signs were very rare. This was even worse in Scandinavia, where pathways shifted with the seasons. In winter, frozen lakes and bays were the most common pathways. In summer, they were unusable. Even major roads on land were rarely more than muddy tracks.

However, Kiechel was not completely unfamiliar with the area between Nyköping and Söderköping. He had already travelled through there on the way to Stockholm. In addition, Scandinavian infrastructure was quite rudimentary, with few major roads. In fact, I would hazard the guess that there was only one major road southwards from Nyköping. Roads in the Middle Ages and early modern period were not planned for long-distance traffic, but to connect nearby towns and villages. Norrköping and Söderköping were the next towns to the south. Regardless of the road’s poor quality, our traveller would have been able to follow it, if only for lack of alternatives.

Following the road south, Kiechel came to a small lake, and upon stepping onto it, his horse broke through the ice and stood in the water. The water reached the belly of the animal and began to seep into the sledge. Our traveller managed to get the horse and sledge out of the lake and then drove around it along a rough, swampy path.

In the afternoon, Samuel reached the Bråviken, the inlet from the Baltic Sea he had already crossed on his way to Stockholm a few weeks earlier. Then it was frozen solid; now Kiechel was weary from driving his sledge across it. He could see many holes cut into the ice by fishermen during the winter. The water was now rising through them, reaching almost knee-high.

After some deliberation and with no viable alternative route, Kiechel spurred his horse on, praying he might reach the other side safely. He wrote that he felt hot and nervous because he spotted many gaps in the ice large enough for a horse’s hoof to become caught. If he got stuck, or worse, broke through the ice, there would have been no one to help or rescue him. Fortunately, our traveller reached the other side of the inlet unharmed.

Due to the slow progress, Samuel Kiechel would not reach Söderköping that day. He stopped in the evening at a peasant’s house. This house was a familiar place. Our traveller had already spent a night there on his way to Stockholm. The house’s owner, a peasant, recognised the traveller and tried to talk to him, but Samuel did not speak Swedish and could not answer.

Nevertheless, Samuel was given food and drink to the best of his host’s abilities. His horse was also fed. Our traveller was even offered a bench to sleep on instead of the floor, as was usually the case.

To eat the soup the peasant served, Kiechel was given a silver spoon. Our traveller wrote: It is common in Sweden that even poor peasants have some silver spoons, even if they do not have a bed in their house. Wealthier farmers own fifty or more solid silver spoons. The spoons are considered their treasure. Kiechel believed that peasants and farmers mistrusted those who paid in money. As soon as someone had enough money to afford it, this person would not buy a silver spoon but have one made. The spoon would be thick enough to weigh three to four Reichsthaler. Our traveller was also told that the population had been much wealthier before the war (the Northern Seven Years’ War, 1563-1570). Peasants would occasionally work in the mines, and some of them had accumulated half a barrel of silver spoons.¹

Later, Samuel Kiechel would meet the master of the royal mint, a Dutchman, who told our traveller that he still knew a peasant who had half a barrel of silver spoons. But most spoons had been melted down during the war. What wealth the peasants had left was still expressed in silver spoons, and guests would be given one to eat with.

On the morning of 18 March, Kiechel paid the peasant for his hospitality and left. The further he travelled, the more the snow had turned into sludge or mud and the ice into deep water. Kiechel came to a small brook he had to cross. When he was in the middle of it, the ice broke under his horse, and the animal and sledge fell in. Kiechel jumped out, but when he landed on the ice, it broke, and our traveller stood up to his waist in the cold water. Afraid the animal might run away, Samuel did not want to let go of his horse’s reins. He waded through the freezing brook after the animal until they arrived on the other side.

There, it did not get better. Stepping out of the cold water, Kiechel was confronted by two execution wheels. Two murderers had been executed there, and apparently their bodies were still on the wheels.²

Execution wheels were a gruesome form of torture and execution used in the Middle Ages and early modern period. The wheel was a typical spoked wooden wheel used by carts. First, the bones of the condemned were broken by dropping the wheel on them. Then the broken body was braided onto the wheel and erected on a pole. It was left standing to decay as a warning. It could not have been a pretty sight that greeted Samuel Kiechel on the bank of the river.

Our traveller hurried onwards. It was only one mile to Söderköping. His clothes were soaked from his fall into the river, and he was cold. Kiechel decided to walk most of the way in an unsuccessful attempt to warm up. Eventually, he reached his destination around lunchtime. He went to the house of his old companion, the merchant with whom he had come from Copenhagen, and was welcomed and invited to spend the rest of the day and the next in Söderköping to dry his belongings, warm up again, and allow his horse some rest.

To Kalmar

Our traveller was preparing to leave when, on 23 March, the Master of the Royal Mint arrived in Söderköping. He was accompanied by a Dutchman and Kiechel’s former companion, the Dane whom he had left behind in Nyköping. The group was on its way to Kalmar, where the Swedish King was at the time.

Travelling to Kalmar would be a significant detour for Kiechel, who simply wanted to leave the country. But he could not find companions for a more direct route to the Øresund. Unlike the short trip from Nyköping to Söderköping, Kiechel could not travel to the Øresund alone. The distance was greater; the landscape was wild, with dense forests, high mountains and a sparse population. Without a companion or a guide, he would likely get lost.

So Kiechel chose the safer option to join the group and visit Kalmar. They left Söderköping in the afternoon of the same day, but the start was not promising. Samuel now rode his horse, but learned that the animal was not used to carrying a saddle. It gave our traveller some trouble. Initially, it refused to move or walked backwards. As a result, the group travelled only a mile to the village of Hälla.

In the following days, they continued their journey south towards Kalmar. The travellers spent the nights in small villages and farmsteads. While Kiechel recorded their names, I was unable to locate them (in the journal, the places are called: Degree, Nügart, Wy, Auaby, Cadry and Abwy). They were all quite small settlements, and our traveller provided barely any information about this part of the journey.

Fortunately, Kiechel’s horse grew accustomed to its rider, and Samuel managed to acquire stirrups. He also exchanged the small sack of straw he had placed on the wooden saddle as a cushion for an actual cushion, to provide a bit of comfort. He noted in his journal that he did not tell the peasant the purpose of this exchange. Maybe our traveller felt a bit embarrassed.

Kiechel wrote that there were no roads or paths in this region, as people mostly travelled in winter by sledge along frozen tracks. The route the group followed was very swampy. The water had come down from the mountains as the snow began to melt, turning the countryside into one enormous mire.

On 30 March, the travellers finally arrived in Kalmar. However, the last short stretch of the journey took them six hours. During the night, the temperatures had dropped, and the water along the route had frozen. The ice was not thick enough to support a horse, and the animals kept breaking through. Walking on foot and leading the horses was also difficult on the thin ice. Kiechel wrote that their horses were hurt more during those six hours than in the previous eight days.

Lapland

Furthermore, Kiechel learnt during his time in Stockholm that the Swedish king also ruled over other countries. He heard that Finland, which borders Sweden to the north, is a Swedish principality with its own language. Next to Finland is Lapland. According to the information Kiechel received, the population of Lapland is fierce and pays tribute to three lords: the king of Denmark, the ruler of Muscovy, and the king of Sweden. Kiechel was told that the Swedish king receives three parts of the tribute, while the other two rulers share one part. He was also told that Lapland has no defined end and has its own language.⁴

In Lapland, Kiechel wrote, a small deer is found, which he called a reindeer. It is used in winter to pull sledges. The young reindeer are said to run very fast. Their coats are speckled with various colours. The skin of the reindeer is used to make boots, gloves and shoes called “lappschuch” (laplander shoe). According to Kiechel, these shoes are ideally suited for cold weather. He wrote that people sometimes wear four or five pairs of socks at once, yet still get cold feet. But if someone wears one pair of socks and the “lappschuch”, he will not get cold feet. The colder it gets, the more warmth these shoes provide, as long as they are not wet. Kiechel described the shoes as coarse and hairy on the outside and smooth on the inside.⁵

Kiechel also recorded hearing that many inhabitants of Lapland were supposed to be warlocks and witches. These and other stories about Lapland were relayed to him by people he described as trustworthy. However, since he had learned only through hearsay and had witnessed nothing himself, he decided not to write more about it.⁶

Assumptions about heresy and witchcraft in northern Scandinavia were widespread and persisted a century after Kiechel’s journey. These are two Dutch prints from 1682. In the first image, Laplanders worship their old gods, and in the second, a Laplander is in conversation with the devil.

The issue of the tribute of the Laplanders is also found in Olaus Magnus’ Historia. Magnus added that they are usually peaceful people and do not attack their neighbours. But when the Laplanders are provoked, they will fight with weapons and magic.⁷ With regard to the witches and warlocks in Lapland, this is also found in Olaus Magnus’ book and seems to have been a common assumption about the people in the far north, believed to be true. Some examples of superstition, witchcraft and wizardry are on Magnus’ Carta Marina.⁸

Examples of superstition and witchcraft on the Carta Marina (1539)⁹

In Uppsala

View of Uppsala, 1668

Uppsala, according to our traveller, was an unfortified town in flat countryside, unusual in this mountainous country. The town had been the seat of an archbishop and had a beautiful cathedral church built in the country’s typical style. Kiechel wrote that he had not expected to find such an impressive church in Sweden.

The last archbishop of Uppsala had been Johannes Magnus, the older brother of the above-mentioned cleric, mapmaker and historian Olaus Magnus. Both brothers went into exile when the Protestant Reformation arrived in Sweden.

Uppsala Cathedral, 1670

Samuel Kiechel spent 9 March in Uppsala. He visited the cathedral and learnt that the Swedish kings and queens are buried there. Our traveller saw the beautiful tomb of Gustav Vasa. The tomb was made of white alabaster, with a life-size sculpture of the king placed upon it.¹¹

To the left of the tomb, Kiechel saw a large silver box, which he was told contained the relic of Saint Eric. He learnt that the box had once been gold, but during a war the gold melted, turning it into silver — a transformation regarded by locals as miraculous. Kiechel was willing to believe this account, noting the Swedish people’s strong belief in Saint Eric. He added, more sceptically, that otherwise the gold would have turned to wood long ago.¹²

In Uppsala, Kiechel also visited a royal palace that resembled a fortress but was intended as a place of pleasure. The building stood on a hill and was encircled by a long wall. Even after twenty-four years, construction was still ongoing. The palace’s master builder, from Silesia, welcomed Kiechel and invited him to his house.

Uppsala, view of the town and palace, 1690

While visiting the palace, Kiechel observed many beautiful rooms with high vaulted ceilings, decorated with sculpted figures and other finely crafted works. The rooms were richly coloured. Kiechel mused that building them must have cost a great deal. He noted, however, that the finished rooms soon needed repair; the completion of one often coincided with the decay of another. He considered the construction an endless task, attributing this to the cold climate. Workers were busy building the palace church, burning large amounts of wood to keep the mortar from freezing and allowing construction to continue.¹³

On 10 March, Kiechel returned to Stockholm with a German man. They travelled across frozen lakes, making their journey faster than if they had used the snow-covered roads. Kiechel noted his enjoyment of watching peasants fish under the ice, observing how they cut small holes just wide enough for fishing lines to pass through. The lines were strung from hole to hole. After some time, groups of forty to fifty people would gather to reel in the line and catch many fish. These fish, called “strömling”, are about half the size of a herring and are either dried or eaten raw.¹⁴

Stömming, also known as Baltic herring, is a subspecies of the Atlantic herring.

Olaus Magnus provides more detail about ice fishing. He described a common way to icefish as using a hook and line passed through a hole in the ice. A small fish is used as bait to catch larger fish. As for the process described by Kiechel, Magnus wrote that the holes in the ice are placed sixty to a hundred paces apart. The fishing line, passing from hole to hole, has many hooks attached. It stays under the ice for a whole night and is pulled out the next day.¹⁵

Exploring Stockholm

Upon arriving in Stockholm, Samuel Kiechel began exploring the city. As usual, his descriptions are brief. Our traveller visited Stockholm’s harbour and wrote that it was very deep and large. Heavily laden ships could anchor there. However, at the time of his visit, the sea was frozen, and all ships were locked in the ice. Our traveller saw several large ships he called “orlac schif”, a contemporary term for warships. He heard that the King of Sweden had used them in the conflict with Denmark. Among those ships was one called the “grosse drackh” (Large Dragon). It was the largest and most powerful Swedish ship. It had multiple decks, and Kiechel learnt that the hull was reinforced with osmond, a type of ore produced in the mountains, which stopped gunshots from punching through.⁵

Contrary to Kiechel, osmond was not an ore but a type of wrought iron. The process of making osmond iron originated in Sweden during the Middle Ages, and it was a popular export good.

Kiechel learnt that Stockholm’s houses closest to the water were built on stilts. Olaus Magnus wrote about the construction of such houses in his Historia. According to him, construction began in winter, when the water was frozen. The stilts were wooden posts made from alder, beech, fir or oak. Those types of wood became as strong as iron in the water. One end of the stilts was sharpened to a point and reinforced with iron. They were driven into the riverbed, and stones were placed around them to support them. When the ice melted in the spring, a solid foundation of stilts was ready to support houses. Magnus further wrote that not only houses but also palaces, towers and walls were built on stilts.⁶

Furthermore, Kiechel visited an island he called ‘Menckhollm’. The island was linked to Stockholm by a bridge. A monastery stood on the island. Our traveller wrote that it had once belonged to a diocese but was now used to house scholarship holders.⁷

The island was called “Munckholmen”. It translates as ‘Monk Island’, but it is now known as Riddarholmen. The Greyfriars Monastery on the island was dissolved in 1527 during the Protestant Reformation. Its buildings were repurposed as a hospital and, from 1576, as a school of Theology. The island is depicted in both views in the Civitates.

Munckholmen in the Civitates, ca. 1588

Accommodation, Food and Drink in Stockholm

While travelling through Sweden, Kiechel learnt that there were no regular inns in the country. Travellers had to arrange private accommodation. The same was true in Stockholm. Samuel wrote that he stayed in Jacob Loorman’s house. Loorman was originally from Lübeck but had married in Sweden and now lived in Stockholm.

Kiechel does not explain how he knew about this private accommodation. Presumably, his companions, who were also from Lübeck and had been to Stockholm before, knew Loorman and took Kiechel along. It was typical in the early modern period for travellers to stay with countrymen, if possible.

Samuel Kiechel was satisfied with the accommodation and wrote that his host took good care of him. He paid one Reichstaler per week for food, drink and a place to sleep. Regarding the cost of living in Stockholm, Kiechel considered one Reichstaler per week good value for money. Partridge and other poultry were often served. But no wine was available, and guests were only given beer.

Regarding drinks, Kiechel noted that wine and other foreign drinks were very expensive in Sweden due to high customs duties. A half-pint of wine that cost him four Kreuzer at home in Ulm was available in Sweden for a quarter of a Reichsthaler. A Kreuzer was small change, whereas a Reichsthaler was a large silver coin.

Furthermore, our traveller learnt that the wine served in Stockholm was mostly from the Rhine region, though he assumed it was watered down. Luckily for Samuel, the Swedish beer was very good. Apart from the local varieties, there were also foreign beers from Lübeck, Rostock, Gdańsk and other places for sale. Finnish and Lithuanian mead were sold in Stockholm, and Samuel observed that Swedish women enjoyed drinking it.¹¹

Olaus Magnus wrote that three varieties of wine were available in Sweden. Spanish wine was good, mild and sweet. French wine was often sour and hard, and was used as sacramental wine at church. Wine from the Rhine region was of good quality and sold in the taverns for a high price. In addition, Magnus wrote, the people of Sweden produced a local wine. They made it from pears, apples and medlar, seasoned with pepper, ginger and cloves. A herbal wine was produced from sage, wormwood and lavender.¹² Olaus Magnus also mentioned the mead production, as described earlier, and wrote that Polish, Lithuanian and Gothic (Swedish) mead were available for sale.

Regarding drinking customs in Sweden, Samuel Kiechel wrote that when seated at a table, people drink one after another, and each man toasts the one beside him. He raises his glass or tankard, offers his hand, and blesses his neighbour. The same happens when one of the men leaves the table to go outside. When he returns, everyone at the table offers their hand and welcomes him back. According to our traveller, this was a common custom not only in Sweden but also in Denmark and in other cities along the Baltic coast, as far as Lithuania and Livonia. It is understood that offering your hand means you are not envious or hateful towards the other drinkers.¹³

As for getting the drink out of the body, Kiechel reported that houses in Stockholm lack toilets. Instead, people went to what he calls ‘between the gates’ and other places made for this purpose. These were obviously public toilets. Kiechel further wrote that these places had separate spaces for men and women. As a foreigner unfamiliar with local customs, Kiechel mentioned that he entered the women’s toilet. An old woman caught him as he left. She scolded and insulted him. But our traveller did not understand a word.¹⁴

Finally, Kiechel noted that the Swedes make very large cheeses that weigh many pounds each. He heard that some cheeses are so large that two men have difficulty carrying them, but he had not seen them. Our traveller further wrote: If a landed nobleman is planning his marriage, a cheese is used to show his wealth and how many peasants he has on his land. All peasants must deliver milk from all their cows on a specific date. The collected milk is used to make the cheese that shows the nobleman’s wealth and power.¹⁵

Olaus Magnus recommended the Swedish cheese. He wrote that the Swedes have the best cheese because of the country’s high-quality pastures. The cheeses are so large and heavy that two men are needed to carry them. However, the cheeses are made only by women, and no man is allowed to participate in the process. Women from various villages come together in the summer to make cheese from the milk. First, they heat the milk. They cut up small cheeses that had been dried in the sun and air and add them to the hot milk. According to Magnus, these pieces of cheese work similarly to gravel added to mortar. The gravel provides stability to the mortar wall, and the bits of old cheese improve the structure and consistency of the new cheese. The hot milk with the cut-up pieces of cheese is then poured into square wooden moulds and left to dry.¹⁶

Olaus Magnus furthermore wrote that the Swedes in the east of the country make good sheep’s cheese, whereas the Finns produce good-quality goat cheese. The goat cheese is mostly smoked.¹⁷

Mining in Scandinavia

When the travellers approached Nyköping, they passed a copper mine. The mine belonged to Duke Charles (1550-1611, King of Sweden from 1604 to 1611). He was the brother of the current Swedish King, John III (1537-1592), and had his court in Nyköping. The Duke was married to a daughter of the Elector Palatine from Heidelberg (Maria of the Palatinate, 1561-1589, daughter of Louis VI, Elector Palatine). Our traveller observed that the construction of the Duke’s castle in Nyköping was not yet finished. From the outside, it appeared rough and incomplete.⁴

Olaus Magnus wrote at length about mining in Scandinavia. In his Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (1555), he stated that there are many large iron, copper and silver mines across Scandinavia. The Swedish crown derives a significant income from levies and taxes on the mines.⁵ Magnus explains that once all the ore near the surface has been mined, miners go deeper into the mountainsides. They use wooden supports to secure their tunnels and mark them with signs. Treadwheels are used to lower miners underground and to bring ore and water to the surface. Men, horses or bears power the wheels.⁶

However, underground work is dangerous; cave-ins and toxic gases claim many miners’ lives, and some fall to their deaths when the ropes used to climb down break.⁷ Because of these dangers, miners are a rough lot, and many have fled their homes due to misdeeds and are never allowed back. They tend to be unruly and prone to violence, but Olaus Magnus adds that the miners have their own statutes and a mining law and strictly adhere to them. They fear nothing and are willing to go deep into the mines, but many die underground.⁸

Magnus’ Carta Marina features different symbols for various types of ore. On the map, a black dot indicates an iron ore mine, a black square a copper mine, and rectangles represent silver mines.⁹

Stockholm (Holmiak), Nyköping (Nicopia) and Strängnäs (Strengis) on the Carta Marina (1539) with various symbols indicating iron ore (dot), copper (square) and silver mines (rectangle)

Regarding the processing of the various ores mined in Scandinavia, Olaus Magnus wrote that furnaces for silver ore are round and have a bright fire, while those for copper are tall and bound with iron bands. Iron ore is processed in furnaces with bellows, and the hammers are powered by water. Steel is also produced in Scandinavia and is made into various instruments and weapons. Overall, Magnus wrote, Sweden has many skilled smiths who make tableware, doors, fences, shutters and grates.¹⁰

Duke Charles at the Fair

At the time of Kiechel’s visit, a fair was held in Strängnäs. His companions, as merchants, had business to attend to at the fair, so the group spent the next two days in the town.

According to Olaus Magnus, it was an ancient Scandinavian tradition to hold fairs on the ice during winter. These fairs occur at fixed times: in winter, during the first full moon after Epiphany (6 January). At these events, grain and other foodstuffs, iron, copper, textiles, pelts, silver tableware and jewellery are sold. Magnus notes that another fair takes place in Strängnäs at the end of February and additional ones in March.¹¹

While Samuel Kiechel’s companions were busy, our traveller had time to explore. He learnt that merchants from Stockholm attended the fair in Strängnäs, where many horses were bought and sold. Kiechel observed that Swedish horses are strong and sturdy animals. However, they are rarely ridden because the roads are too poor in summer — deep, swampy, waterlogged, and full of moss, as Kiechel would experience on his return journey. Eight or nine-year-old horses had never carried saddles and had only been used to pull sledges. Furthermore, Kiechel noted that Swedish horses reach their prime at nine or ten years old. Up to age five, they are not used because their muscles are not yet strong enough.¹²

Horses played a vital role in daily life during early modern times, used for transport, travel, work and warfare. Samuel Kiechel always mentioned when he travelled on horseback, noting whether he had bought or rented the animal, the difficulties in acquiring it, the price, and often, the horse’s quality and temper. Horses allowed for faster travel and could also carry the traveller’s luggage.

Similarly, Olaus Magnus wrote extensively about Scandinavian horses. Chapter seventeen of his Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus describes the domesticated animals of Scandinavia, with a notable focus on the horse. Magnus explains how to differentiate between a good and a poor horse, how to raise foals and accustom them to the bridle, how to maintain horses’ health and prevent injury, how to care for and treat them, why Swedish horses are superior to others, details of horses used in warfare, and the horses’ docility.¹³ Unlike our traveller, he clearly states that Swedish horses are regularly ridden.

While in Strängnäs observing the busy fair, Kiechel saw Duke Charles. As the town was part of Charles’ domain, he watched the Duke moving among the stalls of small traders, encouraging fair dealings. During this, he was approached by an old peasant. Kiechel noted that in Sweden, it is common to find people over a hundred years old. The old man presented Duke Charles with two beautiful marten pelts.¹⁴

The Duke accepted the gift and continued wandering the fair. However, the old man did not leave but followed the Duke. Eventually, a servant asked why he hadn’t gone. The man approached the Duke again and, regarding the gift, asked Charles for a horse. The Duke laughed and told the old man to come to his residence.¹⁵

Describing the encounter, Kiechel noted that he did not fully understand their conversation because they were speaking in Swedish. How he understood anything at all is unclear. Perhaps he interpreted what he saw, or his two German companions, who spoke some Swedish, translated it for him.

Kiechel also learnt that the Duke was not particular about etiquette and often spent half a day with an old peasant who told him about local customs. This peasant was allowed to enter the Duke’s residence and discuss events with him.

Carnival in Jönköping

Jönköping is a major town in the Swedish province of Småland, situated on the southern tip of Lake Vättern. Samuel Kiechel and his companions spent the night there. The following day was a Sunday, and it was the festive season of Carnival (Shrovetide). Our traveller noted that it was widely celebrated throughout Sweden and observed that during this period, people prepared large quantities of food, including brawn, ham, pigs’ heads, tongue, smoked meat, bacon and other items. All this food had a long shelf life and would still be served a month or six weeks later, just as the travellers had been served meat on their journey that had been cooked around Christmas.³

Carnival celebrations

For Christians, Carnival was a time for feasts, signalling that Lent, the traditional period of repentance and fasting, was soon to begin. All the food that might otherwise spoil was eaten. Our traveller mentioned that large quantities of food, especially meat, were prepared, primarily to preserve them. However, it is reasonable to assume that, given the limited preservation methods and the length of Lent (forty days), most of it was consumed during the Carnival festivities.

The clergyman Olaus Magnus disapproved of the carnival celebrations in Scandinavia, particularly the dressing up and foolish behaviour. He wrote that the wealthy cover their faces with black silk, dress up, wear golden and silver belts, and speak with altered voices. The common people follow suit, dressing up and acting foolishly. Butchers put horned skulls on their heads and make noises like goats or pigs. Fishermen walk around with their nets spread out. Such behaviour is permitted only during the six days before Lent begins.⁴

Carnival parade

Samuel Kiechel and his companions stayed at the house of the mayor of Jönköping, where they were also invited to lunch. Kiechel mentioned that the group carried a stock of beverages in nine glass bottles because wine or beer was unavailable in many parts of Sweden. They shared some of their drinks with their host, which was presumably much appreciated.

After lunch, the travellers hired horses for two miles and left Jönköping. Kiechel observed that the town was nestled in a valley, and as they departed, the road led back into the mountains. To the left of the road was a vast lake, one mile wide and eighteen miles long (Lake Vättern). According to Olaus Magnus’ Historia, Lake Vättern had very clear water with a light green hue. A prominent monastery was situated on an island within the lake, and on the northern shore lay rich ore mines.⁵

More Difficulties and Accidents

In the late afternoon, Kiechel and his companions lost their way again. They reached a small river, but it was too deep to cross. The travellers could not see a bridge, so they followed the river. After some time, they heard dogs barking on the other side. Assuming there was a house or village nearby, they searched for a way to cross the river. Eventually, they found a bridge, but it was well past nightfall. On the other side of the river was a small hamlet where they stayed overnight in a peasant’s house. According to Kiechel, the hamlet was named Onsdau.

Wasting so much time getting lost led Samuel Kiechel to reflect on his experiences of travelling in Scandinavia so far. He wrote: It is difficult for a foreigner who does not know the roads or speak the local language. The peasants rarely accompany the horses they rent out, nor do they send a servant along. Often, only a small boy is sent to return the animals. These boys were poorly dressed, and Kiechel was surprised that they suffered no frostbite.

The three travellers continued their journey the following morning. Samuel had a quick and lively horse pulling his sledge. When they descended a hill along a sunken lane, the sledge bumped into the horse’s hind legs. Startled, the animal bolted and galloped at full speed down the hill. In the sledge, Kiechel was scared but did not dare to jump off because of the high speed. Fortunately, at the bottom of the hill was a frozen lake where our traveller could let the horse run until it tired and slowed down.

A quarter of a mile further along the road, the same thing happened again. But this time, there was no frozen lake, and the road led towards a bridge. Kiechel decided it was safer to jump off, as he feared he might otherwise be dragged into the water below the bridge. The horse continued at speed, and the sledge crashed into various obstacles. When the animal had calmed down and Kiechel had caught up to it, he inspected the sledge and found it too damaged to be of further use. To his relief, the group’s store of drinks was this time not on his sledge. It would have been destroyed, and they would have lost all their wine.

After another hour of travel, the three men arrived in Linköping. They did not stay but continued on their way, stopping in the evening in Söderköping. Both towns are in the province of Östergötland.

Swedish Farmhouses

Although Samuel Kiechel seldom provided lengthy descriptions of what he observed, especially during the early part of his journey, he did note some details about Swedish farmsteads.

Kiechel wrote: The houses in the provinces of Småland and Blekinge are built from the trunks of fir trees fitted together. These houses have four walls and are usually only one storey high. Inside, the walls of the main room are not covered with panels or plaster. The inhabitants seal the gaps between the logs with loam or cow dung. The roofs are made of wooden planks and covered with grass sods. During the summer, sheep and goats graze on the roofs. Most peasant houses feature just one tiny window, about a cubit long and wide, positioned in the roof. The window is covered with parchment or glass. The residents do not need more windows.¹

The doors of the houses are very low, requiring people to bend down to enter. Conversely, the threshold is so high that crossing it is difficult. Kiechel learnt that this tall threshold is meant to keep young animals inside.²

Swedish landscape with three wooden houses

Our traveller’s account of Swedish farmhouses largely aligns with Olaus Magnus’ descriptions in the Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus. According to the Historia, the square houses made of tree trunks are the simplest. Their roofs could be covered with birch bark, bricks or wooden tiles made from spruce, fir, oak or beech. Wealthier households often covered their roofs with copper or lead. Magnus wrote that the wooden houses had only a single window in the roof made of glass or bleached linen. He also mentioned the narrow doors, but wrote that this was done so enemies could not easily open and enter them.³

Regarding the interiors, Kiechel reported: In the main room, there is a table usually as long as the room is wide. In winter, this room functions as a kitchen, larder and bedroom. Instead of a stove, a baking oven is used for heating. Each day, three hours before dawn, a large fire is built in the oven, which keeps the house warm throughout the day. The warmth is so substantial that women, children and servants — who do not work outdoors — wear only shirts despite the cold outside.⁴

Kiechel noted that each person in the household has a specific sleeping spot. The bed of the head of the house and his wife is usually beside the table. It has minimal bedding and is mainly made of straw. The children sleep near the oven, where it is warm. Infants sleep in a box made from a single piece of wood, hung from a beam by a rope. Servants sleep on straw-covered benches, and guests are expected to sleep on the floor or, if shown kindness, on the table.⁵

Furthermore, Kiechel wrote that young animals, such as calves, lambs, goats and piglets, are kept in the main room of the house. Dogs, cats, chickens, and pigeons are not allowed inside. The young animals are placed in the centre of the room and, as mentioned earlier, tend to lick the faces of sleeping individuals. Our traveller commented that it is easy to imagine the smell of a room where people and animals live so closely together, with the scent unable to escape due to the absence of windows and the narrow door. The smell would hit a guest as they opened the door, leaving them feeling more fed up than after a fine meal.⁶

Regarding table manners, Kiechel wrote that the man of the house always seats himself first, at the head of the table, with his wife beside him. During the meal, he will burp loudly, as do his wife and children. Our traveller assumes they do this to amuse the guests. A large wooden bowl on the table serves as a drinking vessel and must be lifted with both hands.⁷

Olaus Magnus did not describe daily life in farmhouses, but noted that household items such as plates, cups and other utensils were usually made of metal. He argued that due to the cold, Swedes are accustomed to a firmer grip when holding objects. Ceramic or glass dishes would crack or break, and liquids in ceramic jugs or bowls could freeze and burst their container. Common materials for dishes were copper, brass and tin, while silver dishes and cutlery were carefully collected and kept by families.⁸

In terms of local customs, Samuel Kiechel wrote: If guests wished to be welcomed into a Swedish home, they must give the woman of the house nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, ginger or similar items. For children, he recommends bringing brass rings, mirrors, knives, necklaces, and other small trinkets. If a guest brings enough food to share, they are welcomed. However, if guests request something and even offer to pay for it, they will find it difficult to obtain it.⁹

Thin Ice

By the time the group finally left the hamlet, it was already late in the day, and the road was terrible. While crossing a wide ditch, the two horses pulling one of the sledges broke through the ice and stood up to their bellies in the water. The sledge tipped over and fell into the water along with one of Kiechel’s companions and their luggage. Our traveller was fortunate, as he was not on the sledge but walking alongside it.

It took the three men considerable time and effort to recover the horses, sledge and luggage from the water. Meanwhile, night fell, and they still had a long way to go. Samuel’s companion, who had fallen into the water, was not feeling well. He was wet, and it was very cold.

Eventually, the group reached a village called Onolzböckh in the Swedish province of Småland well after nightfall. There, the travellers stayed at the house of the local parish priest. Kiechel noted that travellers in Sweden seeking food, drink and accommodation are advised to ask the local reeve or parish priest. Although their houses were not inns, they did not turn people away. The priest was very welcoming, providing food, drink and a place to sleep. He also showed them a special, heated room where they could dry their wet belongings.

As one of the few moments in the journal when the traveller offers insight into himself, Samuel Kiechel wrote that he did not speak Swedish and therefore could not converse with the priest. But learning Latin had been part of his education. Kiechel decided to try to talk to the priest. But since he had not used Latin for ten years, he found it somewhat challenging to communicate in it.

Travel Plans

Samuel Kiechel spent five days in Copenhagen, staying at the house of a man named Hanns Runckh. Runckh was born in Hamburg, spoke German, and now lived in Copenhagen, providing accommodation for German travellers. Although Kiechel does not mention how he learnt about Runckh’s house, he probably just followed his companions, the two merchants from Flensburg.

Having reached the city, Samuel Kiechel had to decide how he should proceed. He could not leave the city by ship because it was winter and the sea was frozen. But he was also not in the mood to return to Germany along the same route he had arrived.

While he pondered what to do, two merchants from Lübeck arrived and took their accommodation in Hanns Runckh’s house. Both men had businesses and warehouses in Sweden and wanted to travel to Stockholm. Kiechel inquired about them and learnt that both men had good, honest reputations. So, our traveller approached the merchants and asked if he could join them on their journey. The two men agreed. In retrospect, Kiechel mentioned that they would prove their good reputation was well deserved.

The Sound Toll

The reason for a heavily armed and fortified castle at the northeastern end of Zealand was the Øresund. This waterway between the island of Zealand and the coast of Scania was the most vital shipping lane connecting the Baltic and the North Seas. It was at its narrowest at Helsingør. A toll, known as the Sound Toll, was levied on all ships passing through the Sound at Helsingør. This toll was the primary source of income for the Kingdom of Denmark for many centuries. It was introduced in the fifteenth century (1429) and abolished in 1857. Tolls were also enforced in the Great Belt and the Little Belt, which were the only alternative sea routes.

A sixteenth-century navigational chart shows the Øresund and the surrounding coastlines in detail. The chart is oriented eastward and depicts the coast of the Sound from southern Norway to the province of Scania. It contains detailed information about water depths, natural hazards, and safe anchorages.

Naval chart of the Øresund (1596) with Helsingborg (Elsenborg), Helsingør (Elsennoer) and Copenhagen (Copenhauen)

Samuel Kiechel was interested in the toll and traffic on the Sound. He wrote: The Øresund is no wider than one German mile, and all ships entering and leaving Denmark must stop and pay a toll. Our traveller further explains: A vessel carrying grain, salt, herring, or similar goods must pay half a Reichsthaler per ‘Last’. Ships without cargo, only carrying ballast, still had to pay a quarter of a Reichsthaler per ‘Last’. According to our traveller, it was a hefty toll.

A Reichsthaler was a standard silver coin introduced in the Holy Roman Empire in 1566. It was accepted outside of the Empire, especially in trade between northern German cities and Scandinavia. Samuel Kiechel often used currencies he was familiar with to communicate the value of things.

A ‘Last’ was a unit of weight and volume used during the Middle Ages and early modern period to estimate the carrying capacity of ships. One ‘Last’ was approximately 2,000 kilograms in weight or about 2.7 cubic metres in volume.

Kiechel further reports: In good weather, it often happens that fifty to sixty ships or more pass through the Sound in a single day. These ships sail from Holland to Danzig (Gdańsk) to collect grain. Despite sailing empty, they must lower their sails and pay the toll. All ships heading to Sweden, Finland, Narva, Rügen (Island of Rügen), Reval (today: Tallinn), Königsberg (today: Kaliningrad), Danzig (Gdańsk), Stettin (Szczecin), Stralsund, Greifswald, Rostock, Wismar and Lübeck must pass through the Øresund. All ships sailing westward towards the Netherlands, France, England, Spain, and Portugal also need to use the Sound. For our traveller, it was clear that the toll was Denmark’s primary source of income.

Regarding control of the Sound, Samuel Kiechel noted: Directly opposite Helsingør is a village called Helsingborg with a castle on a hill above it. No ship can safely sail through the Sound as the mounted guns of the castles at Helsingør and Helsingborg can fire all the way to the opposite coast. Kiechel also learnt that ships shouldn’t travel under full sail through the Sound. During the summer, royal Danish ships are present. They are armed with guns and ammunition and carry soldiers and sailors. These ships are ready to raise anchor at any moment. Therefore, no vessel can pass through the Øresund without paying the toll.

Crossing the Sound

Samuel Kiechel and his companions were fortunate. The day after they arrived in Helsingør, a boat was departing for Helsingborg across the Øresund. Kiechel pointed out that during winter, travellers often waited three or four days for a vessel to Helsingborg because of the ice. He explains: The Øresund is very narrow at this point and filled with ice, but it does not freeze over completely. When the wind blows towards the sea, it pushes the ice out of the Sound, but when it blows towards the land, it pushes the ice back in. There is rarely a moment without wind, so crossing the Sound in winter is always dangerous.

The boat left Helsingør with the wind blowing towards the sea and the water mostly free of ice. But throughout the crossing, there was the fear that this might change. A shift in the wind would have brought the ice back, and the boat would then become stranded in the middle of the Sound with no way to reach either side. Fortunately, the weather remained stable, and the travellers reached Helsingborg safely.